Forensic science involves the use of ways of natural and physical sciences to solve criminal cases. It is not limited to just investigation and prosecution of crimes including murder,drug trafficking but it also includes situations where no crome has been comitted but someone is accused of harming the society. In such kind of situations forensic science helps in providing evidence to support or refute the claims made in civil lawsuit.

We can bring any science in the umbrella of forensic science becuase almost all science can help in solving a crime or finding a civil harm. Forensic sciences are not unique from the traditional sciences. The differentiating factor is that forensic scientists use the methods and techniques to matters of law.

Short descriptions of each of the main areas of forensic science follow.

Forensic Anthropology

There are numerous uses of applications of anthropology to the forensic sciences. A major part of anthropology involves skeletal biology which involves bone and bone system structures and their links to charecteristics such as gender, age , race, socioeconomic status etc. This knowledge can be utilized in examinating the charecteristics of the skeletons on the crime scene. In these cases the goal of the analysis may be to identify the dead person and also the cause of the death. This tells why forensic anthropologists use a number of unique techniques.

Forensic anthropologists study human bones to help identify remains. There are two main types of bone evidence they deal with:

1. Single Bones or Bone Fragments: When only one bone or a small group of bones is found, the forensic anthropologist first checks if the bone is human or from an animal. If it’s human, they figure out which part of the body it came from. For example, if an arm bone is found, it’s likely that more bones from the same person are nearby.
2. Complete or Almost Complete Skeletons: When a full skeleton is found, the anthropologist can gather more information, such as the person’s gender, race, approximate age, height, and sometimes even clues about their social status. If any bones show signs of injury, the anthropologist can often detect what type of trauma occurred. If the skull is intact, they can create a facial model using clay based on measurements from average human anatomy. This model can be shown to the public to see if anyone recognizes it. If a match is suspected and there are photos of the person when they were alive, a new video technique can be used. This involves taking pictures of the skull and superimposing it over the missing person’s photo using two cameras to see if they match.

Criminalistics

Criminalistics is the process of forensic investigation by using scientific techniques to identify, collect, and compare physical evidence related to crimes or illegal activities. It also includes piecing together what happened during the crime by examining the evidence and the crime scene.
Criminalists, who are often referred to as forensic scientists, analyze various types of evidence, including body fluids. For example, they can check if the DNA from these fluids matches blood found at a crime scene. This process is crucial for linking suspects to criminal activities and helping solve cases.

Forensic Engineering

Forensic engineering applies principles from different types of engineering—like mechanical, chemical, civil, and electrical—to help solve crimes and accidents and understand their causes. A big part of this work is figuring out what happened in traffic accidents. Forensic engineers look at things like skid marks, damage to vehicles, where cars ended up after the crash, road conditions, injuries to people involved, and what witnesses saw. They often collaborate with experts in other fields, such as forensic pathologists and toxicologists. Some forensic engineers focus on specific areas like boat accidents or plane crashes.

Another important area of forensic engineering is failure analysis. Engineers study why buildings or structures break down or fail earlier than expected. For example, in 1981, a walkway at the Kansas City Hyatt Regency Hotel collapsed, causing injuries and deaths. Forensic engineers investigated to find out why it happened.

An unusual use of forensic engineering involves studying how high-voltage power lines might affect farm animals. Farmers have long believed that electrical currents from these lines can harm their animals, including cows’ milk production. Many electrical engineers have researched this issue, and some cases have even gone to court.

Forensic engineers are typically trained engineers with advanced forensic degrees who gain expertise in important areas of forensics. There are no specific graduate programs for forensic engineering, so most learn their skills through hands-on experience, often by working with more experienced engineers.

Jurisprudence

Most members of the jurisprudence section of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences are lawyers. They care about how scientific evidence is used in court. They examine and provide opinions on whether new types of scientific evidence can be accepted in legal cases. They also look at the role of forensic science in the criminal justice system and address ethical issues that affect judges and lawyers. Some of these lawyers have a solid understanding of scientific topics, which helps them collaborate effectively with other lawyers and scientists.

Forensic Odontology

Forensic dentistry is a branch of forensic science that focuses on using dental information to help solve crimes. One of the main uses of forensic dentistry is identifying bodies by their teeth, especially in disasters like plane crashes or fires, where other identification methods might not work. Teeth are strong and can survive damage, so forensic dentists can take X-rays of the teeth and compare them to dental records from before the person died. The challenge is finding the right dental records to match with the remains.

Forensic dentists also help analyze facial injuries, particularly in cases of suspected abuse. They can determine whether injuries were accidental, such as from a fall, and often work with doctors and nurses in emergency rooms.

Another important area of forensic dentistry is bite mark analysis. In some crimes, such as assaults or murders, the attacker may bite the victim, leaving marks that can last a long time. Forensic dentists can create a mold of the bite mark and compare it to molds of a suspect’s teeth. Since everyone’s teeth are unique, this comparison can help identify the person responsible.

There have been notable cases where bite mark evidence played a key role. For example, a burglar in England left a bite mark on Swiss cheese that led back to him. In a more serious case, American serial killer Ted Bundy was linked to his victims through bite marks he left on them, which helped convict him.

Overall, forensic dentists are trained dentists who specialize in analyzing dental X-rays, bite marks, and facial injuries to aid in criminal investigations.

Forensic Pathology

In cases of suspicious deaths, a forensic pathologist is responsible for figuring out how and why a person died. Each state in the U.S. has its own rules for what counts as a forensic case and how to handle them. Many states have a medical examiner system, where a chief medical examiner, who is a doctor, leads a team of associate medical examiners who do the actual work. Other states have a coroner system, where the main person might not be a doctor but hires forensic pathologists to do the necessary tasks.

Forensic pathologists have three main jobs. First, they go to crime scenes to examine the body and estimate how long it has been since the person died. They take control of the body and guide trained investigators in preparing and moving it to the morgue for further examination.

Second, they determine the cause and manner of death through an autopsy, which involves carefully examining the body for injuries, diseases, or poison that might explain the death. They work with forensic toxicologists, who analyze tissue samples to find any substances that could have contributed to the death. They also collaborate with criminal investigators to understand the circumstances of the death and may consult forensic anthropologists or entomologists for additional insights.

When someone dies, a doctor must fill out and sign a death certificate, which must state the manner of death. The options are homicide, accident, suicide, or natural causes. Some states require one of these to be listed, while others allow for “undetermined” or similar terms. Determining the manner of death can be straightforward in many cases, but it can be challenging in suspicious situations.

Finally, forensic pathologists testify in court about the cause and manner of death. They often have to present their findings in a way that is not disturbing to the jury, and judges may limit the use of graphic images of the deceased to avoid biasing the jury.

Forensic pathologists are doctors who specialize in pathology and typically undergo three to four years of additional training after medical school. They may complete an extra year of training in forensic pathology to become certified. It’s crucial for pathologists to be properly trained, as mistakes in determining the cause of death can lead to wrongful convictions or other injustices.

Forensic Etmology

Besides forensic pathology, there are other biological sciences that are important in forensics, such as forensic entomology. Insects are often the first to arrive at a dead body, especially if it’s outdoors. Different types of insects will come to the body to lay their eggs or feed on it. Forensic entomologists study these insects to help figure out how long it has been since the person died, known as the postmortem interval.

Some insects arrive right after death, while others come later, after some decay has started. Understanding which insects are present and their life cycles can provide clues about the time of death. Accurately determining the postmortem interval requires a lot of training because many factors, like temperature, humidity, and burial conditions, can affect insect behavior. In some poisoning cases, the only source of poison found after the body has decayed was from the insects that had eaten it, which, while related, is not strictly part of forensic entomology.

Most forensic entomologists work full-time at universities and offer their expertise to law enforcement when needed. Very few people work in forensic entomology as their main job.

Psychiatry and behavioral science

Behavioral forensic science has grown a lot since the mid-20th century. Forensic psychiatrists and psychologists help determine if someone is mentally fit to stand trial and can assist in their defense. Each U.S. state has its own rules for this, but it usually comes down to whether the person had the mental ability to intend to commit a crime, which is key in deciding if a crime occurred.

Beyond this, behavioral forensic scientists have several other important roles. They can help reconstruct crime scenes and create psychological profiles of criminals, especially serial offenders who commit similar crimes repeatedly. By analyzing their behavior and motivations, these scientists can predict when and where the criminal might strike next, which can help the police prevent future crimes. They can also find clues at crime scenes that reveal the criminal’s habits and help narrow down the search for suspects.

Behavioral scientists may also work on profiling potential threats, like airplane hijackers, to assist airport security in identifying suspicious individuals.

Another key responsibility is interviewing suspects and witnesses. They might use polygraphs (lie detectors) to check if someone is telling the truth. Those who work in this area have a deep understanding of police work and crime behavior.

Typically, behavioral scientists have advanced degrees in fields like psychiatry, clinical psychology, or criminology, and they often have some experience in law enforcement to better understand crime behavior.

Questioned-document analysis

Questioned-document analysis is a field in forensic science that examines various types of documents to determine their authenticity and origins. It requires years of training and experience. One of the most common tasks in this field is handwriting analysis, where examiners check if a specific person wrote a document. They do this by comparing the questioned document with samples of the person’s known handwriting, called exemplars. There are no set rules for how many matching characteristics are needed to conclude authorship; it depends on the examiner’s judgment.

Forensic document examiners also look into whether a specific typewriter or copier produced a document. However, unless there are clear signs of defects, it’s often hard to give a definite answer.

They may also investigate changes made to documents, such as erasures, added information, or burned pages. This work can involve chemical tests as well as careful observation. Examiners often need to determine the age of a document, especially handwritten ones. A document might have different entries made at various times, leading to questions about when something was written. To figure out the age of ink, they analyze how its chemical makeup changes over time. Similar tests can be done on the paper if no ink was used.

Toxicology

Toxicology is the study of poisons and drugs in the body, while forensic toxicology focuses on analyzing these substances in cases where death or injury might be linked to drugs or poisons. One of the most common situations forensic toxicologists deal with is drunk or drugged driving.

In the U.S., each state has laws about alcohol use while driving, including specific blood alcohol limits. There are two main categories for intoxication: “impaired,” which means the driver is affected, and “under the influence,” which requires a higher level of alcohol. In many states, simply having a blood alcohol level above the legal limit is enough for an offense, while others also require proof that the driver was impaired, often assessed through coordination tests.

Forensic toxicologists measure the amount of alcohol in a person’s blood and explain how it affects driving ability. They may also estimate what a person’s blood alcohol level was at an earlier time, which can be complicated due to many factors.

In addition to alcohol cases, toxicologists also analyze situations where drivers are under the influence of drugs, typically illegal ones. Unlike alcohol, there are no set limits for drugs, so toxicologists need to understand how different drugs affect coordination. In many states, any detectable amount of a drug can be enough to indicate impairment.